The article attempts to study the physiological foundations of mental processes. In particular, a possible version of the relationship, or rather, the unity of the defense mechanisms of the psyche (emotions) and conditioned, unconditioned reflexes, is proposed. That is, how reflex mechanisms and processes become the basis of defense mechanisms. Thus, repression, displacement, inversion of emotions are represented by stages of a single process. A scheme for dividing complex mental phenomena into components is proposed. The main factors that determine the behavior of humans and animals are highlighted. Including: experienced trauma, dreams, emotions, attractions. They help to answer the question about the motives of a person's behavior, the mechanism for making certain decisions.
Psychological patterns are considered on examples: social behavior, the phenomenon of attractiveness and beauty, perception of color, taste preferences, motives of sexual behavior, etc. In the course of reasoning and presentation by the author of his own ideas, an overview of already known hypotheses, theories and ideas in psychology and psychophysiology is given.
The object and subject of this article are well-known and widespread psychological phenomena. First of all, we are talking about the defense mechanisms of the psyche and the emotions associated with them. The phenomena of the psyche proposed for consideration are not speculative hypothetical constructs. Really observed and well described by research psychologists. Consider the defense mechanisms of the psyche, discovered by the founder of psychoanalysis Z. Freud [8]. The first and foremost of these is repression.
Now the phenomenon of repression has a broader interpretation than in classical psychoanalysis. In the article, repression refers to the suppression of any unpleasant experiences to varying degrees of awareness. It can be considered that the result of repression is the elimination (weakening) of the emotional component of psychotrauma. As the basic mechanism of mental defense, repression is the basis or is an integral part of all other, more complex defense mechanisms. Except for two also basic ones: displacements and inversions. In the theory of conditioned reflexes, repression is comparable to the stage of generalization.
The defense mechanism and the psychological phenomenon of "displacement" in the modern interpretation is practically indistinguishable from the psychoanalytic one. Displacement (albeit in relation to dreams), like repression, Z. Freud [7,8] referred to the basic phenomena. This, in my opinion, is his main achievement as a scientist. Another important achievement of Freud is the discovery of such phenomena as reactive formation and sublimation. That is, the possibility of the existence of such mechanisms. But more on that below. The article shows that displacement, as a psychological phenomenon, is a broader and more universal concept. It not only transcends the dream, but also underlies all mental processes (along with repression). For example, displacement underlies or is an integral part of all other defense mechanisms related to groups: displacement, inversion, motivation (see the section "Defense mechanisms of the psyche"). In addition to the basic, in fact, inversion and motivation. In the theory of reflex formation, the displacement will correspond to the stage of consolidation (specialization) of the conditioned reflex.
The inversion of emotions in the article is considered only in one sense. This is the transformation of a negative emotion of attitude to some object, object by way of getting rid of it into a positive emotion. And less often in the opposite direction. Since this will mean that the mental process is rolling back.
Two groups of mental phenomena are distinguished:
1. Primary, basic (basic), simple:
- repression, displacement, inversion of emotions, motive.
2. Secondary (derivatives), minor (routine), complex (compound):
- everyone else.
These concepts refer to both the process and its result.
Motive and motivation, with some assumptions, can also be called psychological defense. In general, this is a defense against inaction, apathy. A motive (and then motivation) is built on the basis of primary, simple mental phenomena (defense mechanisms). The starting point for all mental processes is physical or mental trauma. Then there is "repression" and then "displacement". Further, on the basis of the negative emotion of displacement, a positive emotion arises (may arise). That is, an "inversion" occurs, which can grow into a motive. It is important to note that the process with kickbacks, stops, but only moves in one direction from injury to motivation. Positive emotions are a consequence (result) of negative emotions experienced. There are no pleasures without trials and hardships (trauma). Similar thoughts in one form or another have already been expressed by psychologists, philosophers, and writers. In this article, this idea is formulated in the form of a law.
Example. Why can asceticism be attractive? Why are the hardships and hardships in such a lifestyle (that is, in a situation of trauma) accompanied by positive emotions and motivation? The general answer is that the psyche always adjusts to the given situation. In more detail, the answer is this: the mechanisms of repression and displacement are turned on, and then the mechanisms of inversion and motivation can also turn on. What is important, the motivation is not to avoid these hardships, but rather the positive motivation of striving for an ascetic lifestyle. Likewise in the case of anorexia. Emotions in this case are also positive, but the motivation is destructive. You can give as many sophisticated and ordinary examples of a person's emotional reaction as you like, but the pattern will be the same. It's just that there are abnormalities in hearing, and less attention is paid to the usual emotional reaction. That is, this pattern is universal, and it provides, basically, the norm of behavior now, and helped to survive in difficult conditions of the wild.
It is also interesting to trace this regularity of the psyche in evolutionary terms, starting from the moment animals emerged on land. Namely: how the dangers associated with gravity could cause the appearance of defense mechanisms in vertebrates, and later in warm-blooded animals and, naturally, in humans?
In this sense, displacement in a dream clearly has a warning function. For example, nightmares of falling reinforce and maintain the fear of heights at the required level. In this case, the reaction of pain that previously occurred during falls in reality turns out to be displaced from consciousness (it is also absent in the plot of the dream), but is symbolically represented in the dream in the form of fear of falling. The adaptive nature of such displacements is beyond doubt. If animals or people are constantly, in any situation, fear possible damage and pain reactions, this will restrain movement and reduce search activity. Nightmares such as "falls", as well as displaced states in a milder form (symbols) are intended precisely to put "marks" on really dangerous situations in the form of fear of heights, fear of falling objects, fear of tight spaces or in other more difficult life situations ... In other words, without dreams, the fear of heights and fear of tight spaces, necessary for survival, could not arise. Likewise with more complex problems. In a dream, accents are put down, important points, for example, with regards to relationships in a team, personal relationships. For example, emotions arise regarding a person, but we no longer remember the reasons for the situation that gave rise to them, the source (dream).
If one examines dreams not at one time, but in a temporary development, then, for example, a certain dynamics is observed in the theme of falls. At first, mostly in childhood, there are nightmares of "simple" falls. As you grow older, the stories of dreams you see more and more emphasize cases of avoiding falls, for example, when walking along the edge of cliffs, roofs of tall houses, etc., while experiencing fear, which, as it were, prevents a fall. Further, as fear is overcome, one may have a dream with wonderful flights over the surrounding area or a more realistic dream on the same topic, colored with positive emotions. We can say that this is one and the same dream, stretched out over many years, or that this is one and the same mental process, which under the influence of the environment undergoes phase changes. The study of such processes, and not only in dreams, formed the basis of this article.
The defense mechanisms of the psyche are important for understanding the nature of human behavior by psychological phenomena, phenomena. There are many ways to describe them. We will take as a basis the defenses (some already in a modern interpretation) proposed by the founders of psychoanalysis and their followers. Let's try to distinguish groups according to similar characteristics, which are simultaneously stages of the mental process. And since these groups are stages, the complex phenomena (defense mechanisms) related to the next group include all the previous stages.
Repression group: repression, suppression, isolation, denial, dissociation, ignorance (avoidance).
Let us note for these states the different degrees of removal from the consciousness of unpleasant experiences.
Displacement group: displacement, substitution, displacement of malice, transfer, projection of negative emotions, depreciation, auto-aggression, conversion (somatization).
Displacement is a basic, primary mental phenomenon. The stage of the mental process following repression. The result of displacement (for the whole group) will be negative emotion.
Inversion group: inversion, cancellation (compensation), projection of positive emotions, acting out (discharge), primitive idealization and depreciation (returns to the displacement group), introjection, identification with the aggressor (Stockholm syndrome), regression, cognitive Group*.
Actually, the inversion of emotion is a basic, primary mental phenomenon. The other phenomena listed here are complex and may include repression and displacement stages. The result of inversion (for the whole group) will be a positive emotion.
Completed gestalt, context and content reframing (NLP) can also be referred to the inversion group.
Motivation group: motivation, sublimation, reactive formation or reaction formation, compensation, overcompensation.
Motivation is also a primary mental phenomenon. The other phenomena listed here are complex and may include all of the previous stages. The name speaks for itself. Phenomena belonging to the group are characterized by the appearance, as a result of the mental process, of signs of motivation or motive.
* Cognitive group: intellectualization, moralization, rationalization. These phenomena are characterized by the presence of thought processes. This whole group can be attributed to the group of "inversion of emotions".
Recall that in the case of mental trauma, fear and other negative emotions shift from one object to another. This achieves either a warning of danger, or the removal of the general tension, or both at the same time. It all starts with repression. The main problem no longer "loads" the consciousness completely. Negative emotions are softened (repressed and displaced), which gives the body the opportunity to solve everyday tasks, since, being displaced, emotions are actualized in a secondary problem only occasionally, when exposed to appropriate stimuli.
Further, if the danger has receded, or when displaced and undisplaced emotions (problems) interfere with the solution of other tasks, that is, if there are motivations of a higher order, an "inversion" occurs - the replacement of negative emotions with positive ones. And on the basis of these positive emotions, motivation already arises. Behavior changes radically: the strategy of avoidance is replaced by the strategy of achievement. What used to cause fear, disgust, irritation now arouses interest, a desire to possess it, or to experience previously avoided sensations.
When Anna developed a negative attitude towards her studies due to problems with teachers, the situation seemed hopeless, if not for one event. In this school, amateur performances were traditionally strong. Anna began to actively participate in it and, having a beautiful voice, successfully performed at a school concert. After that, she felt a special attitude towards herself and the sympathy of others. She felt somehow embarrassed to study badly, and she decided to become one of the first students in school. Under the influence of this strong motivation, the negative attitude towards learning was replaced by a positive one (an inversion occurred). With the emergence of interest in learning and the appearance of the first successes, relations with teachers have improved (that is, the main problem will also be resolved).
In connection with the move, Kirill worsened about losing his job. But when meeting with the management, it turned out that a branch of the company would be opened in the city where he was moving, and Kirill, as a promising employee, was offered to head it. After this proposal (strong motivation), all worries about parting with the work collective disappeared (inversion). Moreover, business relations with some members of the team now began to be perceived by him as hostile on both sides (an inversion of feelings from tolerance and, consequently, latent tension, to complete rejection, which, oddly enough, served as a relaxation). As soon as this problem receded, other worries suddenly intensified, already about parting with friends (a new shift arose to part of the main problem). Since the motivation is very strong (career aspirations), then this problem quickly dissipated: Kirill had a desire to test himself with loneliness and other difficulties.
This type of inversion and motivation (as in the last example) can be described as "the desire to hurt oneself", meaning the word pain and mental trauma too. In such situations, inversions of the "desire to hurt another" type also occur. But on closer inspection, it turns out that wanting to hurt another is tantamount to hurting yourself if you care about that other person. Without going into details, let us note that Z. Freud already noted a similar phenomenon - the possibility of simultaneous existence in a person of opposite tendencies in the form of perversions.
With regard to the last example, we note that other difficult life situations are similarly resolved: one by one, one after the other, all obstacles that stand in the way of realizing the main goal (strong motivation) are removed (inverted). Let's look at other examples.
The fear of heights, which inevitably arises when faced with reality, in some situations can interfere with the satisfaction of vital needs (motivations of a higher order). Therefore, the fear of heights, which arose and intensified in dreams, is weakened in dreams. For example, when it becomes necessary to harvest fruits from a tall tree, the mutual influence of the motivation of hunger and the emotion of fear of heights turns on the dreaming mechanism, which begins to generate dreams about wonderful flights, exciting adventures in the mountains or fearless climbing trees. Weakened (inverted) in this way fear in dreams is already more easily inverted in a real situation. In the presence of a dominant motivation, the fear of heights and falls begins to be perceived as a state of euphoria - and the fear is overcome.
Similarly, the fear of tight spaces (claustrophobia) associated with the possibility of shelter collapse is eliminated. When more and more often there is a need to shelter from bad weather (motivation to avoid adverse influences), in dreams, plots of exciting adventures in caves, labyrinths, etc. may appear. These inversions in a dream weaken fear. In reality, in appropriate situations, inversion and motivation are brought to automatism and can occur for no apparent reason. So children love to build huts and houses and hide in them regardless of weather conditions, as well as the desire to swing on a swing, overcoming the fear of heights.
As a result of the inversion of perception (or inversion of emotions), "tasteless" and "inedible" becomes desirable and appetizing. Here are some trivial examples:
1. Potatoes, eggplant (nightshade) contain a small amount of bitter taste and poisonous solanine.
2. Bitterness is the basis of the taste of peaches.
3. Cilantro tastes and smells like forest bugs.
4. Currant leaves smell like cat urine.
5. Arugula tastes like burnt rubber.
6. Tarragon contains wormwood bitterness.
7. Hot peppers, radishes, radishes, horseradish, mustard contain natural pungency and bitterness.
Inversion is also observed after the pain reaction. Those organs that, in an unfavorable situation (stress), became the object of displaced pain, in favorable conditions (the presence of motivation to recover faster) cease to hurt, cause unpleasant sensations and, possibly, due to the rush of blood, increase their functional activity, which is a prerequisite for healing. At least this is the result of itchy skin (inversion of pain), which improves the blood supply to the healing wound by scratching.
A wide range of all kinds of inversions occurs under the influence of sexual desire. So, smells or visual images, in other cases causing disgust, in intimate relationships can acquire the property of an additional exciting factor.
In everyday life, inversion and motivation can look like a desire to overcome any obstacle, solve a problem, acquire the right thing, perform some action, etc.
As a mechanism of mental defense, "inversion of emotions" (or "inversion") increases resistance to stress, traumatic situations, softens feelings.
In laboratory conditions, motivational effects appear when stimulating self-irritating zones. For the first time this phenomenon was discovered by D. Olds in 1960. Further detailed study of these zones, in particular, the area of the lateral hypothalamus, showed that the response depends on the strength of the applied electric current. It ranges from showing exploratory behavior to strong motivational and self-irritating effects. The mechanism for the emergence of dominant motivation is associated with physiological needs. When needs are not met, or negative environmental factors (cold, heat, etc.) cannot be avoided, then this psychophysiological state arises.
Further, the motivation resulting from the inversion can become dominant. A similar process (according to our scheme, this is displacement, inversion, and motivation inclusive) Z. Freud called "sublimation". But he considered a special case when sexual forbidden impulses, drives, do not find their expression and are sublimated into socially acceptable activity. It is clear that as a result of this, the motivation that caused this activity becomes relevant. Today we believe that processes similar to sublimation are triggered by a wide range of traumatic factors, including sexual ones. (see below)
Other researchers have described similar processes as well. In particular, BF Skinner (Skinner BF) in experiments with the use of punishment received conflicting results. It turns out that the behavior that causes unpleasant consequences does not disappear completely. It only changes, manifesting itself in other forms.
Allport (G. Allport, 1937) formulated the "principle of functional autonomy", according to which instrumental actions generated by biological needs can be further motivated independently of these needs.
A. N. Leont'ev (1975) showed the possibility of a full-fledged motive to move to another object (subordinate goal) and expressed this in the concept of "shifting a motive to a goal". That is, actions that previously served to achieve subordinate goals can be split off from the initial (leading) motivation. And these goals acquire the property of a full-fledged (leading) motive.
An example with Anna. As a result of a strong desire to become one of the best students in the school, she had significant academic success. But it takes a lot of effort to become the first. She realized that leadership had already ceased to attract her. By this time, friendships had already developed with classmates. She just became interested in studying, learning something new every day. The emphasis has shifted from leadership to interest in learning.
Consider, for example, through the prism of this regularity, such concepts as love and friendship. In particular, a woman's love for a man: Women are afraid of unfamiliar men, as well as some acquaintances (displacement). But some of them like (inversion) or even cause excitement (motivation). Or men to women: Women often reject the courtship of men and behave demonstratively. Especially men are annoyed by hysterical, spoiled persons (displacement). But some women are pretty pretty (inversion). And one of them is especially worrisome (motivation). Friendship of women: All women are rivals or rivals. Especially annoying are "upstarts" or "gray mice" (displacement). But at work there is a good female team (inversion). And especially the boss supports and helps. She is so kind and considerate (motivation). Friendship of men: Men are aggressive in some situations. For example, in an evening cafe, the company is at the next table (displacement). But in a closed men's club (or in a student group) there are mostly decent people (inversion). It's good to go fishing and have picnics in a narrow circle. Trusting relationships (motivation) also develop.
In general, the inversion of emotions occurs when the context, background, environment, environment, the strength of the emotional response changes, after time, location (distance from the place of danger) and the weakening of the danger itself. That is, with a change in the situation, when unconscious impulses are involuntarily triggered, changing the sign of emotional response from negative to positive.
There is no clear line between inversion and motivation. Inversion often occurs in cases of displacement to insignificant problems, needs (an apparent defect in appearance, lack of some thing, etc.). This process may or may not be developed further. The inversion will be expressed only in the appearance of positive emotions (sensations) regarding this problem. The desire to eliminate this problem (change appearance, buy an expensive thing) will mean the onset of the stage of motivation. If the desire is not satisfied (frustration), then the motivation increases and becomes dominant. That is, when a specific unsatisfied need begins to cause stronger feelings than the initial need that caused it (the desire to look no worse than others).
Let us briefly list the main signs of the state of "motivation": strengthening of the result of inversion (that is, strengthening of positive emotions); the emergence of side motives and related activities; separation of this activity into an independent one; strengthening of the motivation that caused this activity to the status of dominant with a simultaneous weakening of the initial dominant motivation.
Inversion of emotions and motivation, as phylogenetically fixed mechanisms, work ahead of schedule. When dangerous situations have not yet arisen, and basic needs are satisfied, the process is still in development. The desire to get closer to a dangerous line, to take unnecessary risks, for this appears, so that when needs arise that are really vital, to be able to overcome dangerous situations, without hesitation, in "automatic mode".
Any actions are a consequence (have a prehistory) of collision with the surrounding reality. Under natural conditions, hunger (strong motivation) forces animals to go in search of food. The fear of meeting a predator at this moment is weakened (inverted). Having satiated (the motivation disappears), the animal again begins to fear predators (a process has occurred, the reverse of the inversion). The need for a safe rest (new motivation) forces you to climb a tree. The fear of heights is weakened (inverted). Such mental shifts are clearly visible only at the stage of learning. When automatism develops, ready-made behavioral stereotypes will be used in such situations. Inversion of emotions and motivation contribute to the formation of these stereotypes even when vital needs are satisfied (the animal continues to guard its territory even with an excess of food; the cat continues to hunt mice when it is full, etc.). When real needs arise (under the influence of the dominant motivation), the oscillatory shifts of the psyche - inversion and vice versa - will again become the norm of behavior
1. Positive and negative emotions, needs, goals, motives and three defense mechanisms of the psyche: repression, displacement, inversion, motivation - are the main, basic phenomena of the psyche and mechanisms.
2. The rest of the defense mechanisms and phenomena (states and processes) of the psyche are more complex combinations of the main phenomena and defense mechanisms.
3. Only dreams perform the function of warning of danger by increasing the reaction to the symbols of danger hidden from consciousness.
4. Dreams play an especially important role in preventing the dangers associated with gravity (falls, collapse of shelters).
5. The rapid phase of sleep originally emerged in terms of evolution, as a stage of warming up, as a mechanism for preventing hypothermia. A logical continuation was the build-up of an additional function on this mechanism - warning against danger with the help of dreams.
6. Positive emotions are the result of mental processes caused by negative emotions.
7. The attractiveness of red and blue comes from the fact that they are symbols of damage and stress.
8. Taste preferences have a potentially wider range in the event of a shortage of traditional food sources (lack of food).
9. Homosexual orientation can be associated with a reaction to aggressive manifestations.
10. The perception of a person's appearance as attractive, beautiful is the averaging mechanism, which is based on the avoidance of deviating, uncommon traits associated with negative emotions for appearance with a negative background.
11. The "Law of the development of mental processes, mechanisms and states" is formulated: As a result of a painful reaction or a traumatic experience, the following alternately occurring changes-stages arise: repression, displacement, inversion, motivation.
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